Cours 2

A company is, in general, any group of persons (known as its members) united to pursue a common interest. The term is thus synonymous with association, but more often it is used specifically to identify associations formed for profit, such as the partnership, the joint-stock company, and the for-profit corporation. A company is not necessarily a corporation, and thus may not have a separate existence from its members. A company might also not be able to sue or be sued in its own name, and thus would not be considered to be a legal person. Whether a company has either of these characteristics depend on the law of the jurisdiction. Although associations of persons carrying on business must have existed from time immemorial, the oldest continually-operating business in existence is Japanese firm Kongo Gumi, which was founded in the sixth century.

A voluntary association (also sometimes called just an association) is a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to accomplish a purpose.Strictly speaking in many jurisdictions no formalities are necessary to start an association, although it is difficult to imagine how a one person association would operate. In some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association. Some jurisdictions require that the association register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association’s existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud. In many such jurisdictions, only a registered association is a legal person whose membership is not responsible for the financial acts of the association. Any group of persons may, of course, work as an association but in such case, the persons making a transaction in the name of the association are all responsible for it.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships. A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man - one vote principle and distributes  its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization’s bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

In some civil law systems, an association is considered a special form of contract. In the Civil Code of Quebec this is a type of nominate contract. The association can be a body corporate, and can thus open a bank account, make contracts (rent premises, hire employees, take out an insurance policy), lodge a complaint etc. In France, conventional associations are regulated by the Waldeck-Rousseau law of July 1, 1901 and are thus called Association loi 1901, except in Alsace and Moselle where the law of April 19, 1908 applies (these countries were German in 1901). In Texas, state law has statutes concerning unincorporated nonprofit associations that allow unincorporated associations that meet certain criteria to operate as an entity independent of its members, with the right to own property, make contracts, sue and be sued, as well as limited liability to it officers and members.

Quiz 1: Renting a place

•       Q1 In order for you to buy a house in the United States, it is important that you have a good ....... report.

(a) school (b) medical (c) credit (d) dental

•       Q2 If you have pets, it is always necessary to pay for a pet ....... when you rent an apartment.

(a) deposit (b) vaccination (c) leash (d) walker

•       Q3 When you are interested in buying or renting a place you have to fill out .......,which is a type of written request for an apartment or house.

(a) a police report (b) an application (c) an IRS form (d) a parking ticket

•       Q4 Sometimes when you rent a studio apartment, it comes already ........

(a) with pets (b) with a pool (c) with a backyard (d) furnished

•       Q5 ....... is a person who is renting the apartment or house.

(a) Landlord (b) Tenant (c) Houseguest (d) Host

•       Q6 ....... is a person who owns and runs an apartment building, a house or a land.

(a) Tenant (b) Ranger (c) Landlord (d) Seller

•       Q7 If you wish to temporarily rent your apartment to someone else, that means you ....... your apartment to that person.

(a) sublet (b) buy (c) employ (d) hire

•       Q8 It is always good to provide ....... letter to the landlord to prove that you are a good character.

(a) an accredited (b) a touching (c) an anonymous (d) a reference

•       Q9 ....... is a contract that determines for how long you can stay at the place you are renting and how much you have to pay.

(a) Document (b) Lease (c) Loan (d) License

•       Q10 Application fees are usually ......., which means you don't get your money back.

(a) restituted (b) reimbursed (c) non-refundable (d) inexpensive

Quiz 2: Ways of commenting

•       Q1 If you want my honest opinion, I thought the play was ........

(a) litter (b) dust (c) waste (d) rubbish

•       Q2 It was quite a good film but I thought the characters were a bit like ........

(a) paper (b) cardboard (c) plastic (d) material

•       Q3 It's quite a nice car but there was not very much ....... in the back.

(a) area (b) limit (c) room (d) fullness

•       Q4 She's pleasant enough but not very pretty. In fact I'd say she was rather ........

(a) plain (b) straight (c) simple (d) casual

•       Q5 The first time you see the view you can't believe it. It almost takes your breath ........

(a) out (b) over (c) under (d) away

•       Q6 I sat through the concert feeling really bored and sleepy and had to stop myself from ....... several times.

(a) gaping (b) yawning (c) stretching (d) crying

•       Q7 It was one of the most embarrassing moments of my life and I just wanted the ground to ....... up and swallow me.

(a) ease (b) throe (c) open (d) crack

•       Q8 In my opinion no one in their right mind would ever go and pay to see a play ....... that.

(a) as (b) same (c) more (d) like

•       Q9 The room was good, the bed was comfortable and the service was excellent but the hotel food left a lot to be ........

(a) required (b) desired (c) demanded (d) included

•       Q10 To be perfectly honest with you I think that this is the best test I've ever taken in my entire ........

(a) life (b) days (c) duration (d) stay

QUIZ 1

QUIZ  2